Psychosomatics 48:195-204, May-June 2007
doi: 10.1176/appi.psy.48.3.195
© 2007 Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine
Pediatric Psychosomatic MedicineAn Annotated Bibliography
Maryland Pao, M.D.,
Elizabeth D. Ballard, B.A.,
Haniya Raza, D.O., M.P.H., and
Donald L. Rosenstein, M.D.
From the NIH Clinical Research Center, Bethesda, MD. Send correspondence and reprint requests to Maryland Pao, M.D., Deputy Clinical Director, NIMH; Clinical Research Center, 6-5340, Bethesda, MD 20892-1276. e-mail: paom{at}mail.nih.gov
© 2007 The Academy of Psychosomatic Medicine
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ABSTRACT
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This annotated bibliography is intended to be a resource in the essentials of pediatric psychosomatic medicine for the psychosomatic-medicine fellow. The publication list provides practical references for multiple clinical issues relevant to children and adolescents with medical illness and includes major developmental considerations, familial interactions, diagnostic categories, and pharmacologic concerns. Although it encompasses a range of topics, the proposed bibliography is not an exhaustive resource for fellowship training, but rather a first step toward developing a standard curriculum in pediatric psychosomatic medicine.
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INTRODUCTION
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Although psychosomatic medicine (PM), also known as consultation–liaison (C–L) psychiatry, has been recently designated a subspecialty field of psychiatry,1 a comprehensive training curriculum in pediatric PM has yet to be fully developed and implemented. Physicians specializing in PM are expected to have expertise in the diagnosis and treatment of psychiatric disorders in patients with comorbid medical illnesses.2 Standards for PM fellowship training include the expectation that this expertise will encompass "persons of all ages" and "those cared for in specialized medical settings," such as pediatrics or obstetrics and gynecology.3 A training curriculum in pediatric PM is needed for adult PM physicians and child psychiatrists.
As life-saving medical technology advances and childhood mortality declines, an increasing number of children are surviving into adulthood with chronic conditions. Consequently, the need for psychiatric consultation in acutely and chronically medically ill children and adolescents is rising. All child psychiatrists are trained in C–L psychiatry and other collaborative-care models with pediatricians, but highly specific medical innovations and rapid pharmacologic advances have left many child psychiatrists less comfortable in treating children with complex medical illnesses like HIV or those who undergo intensive medical treatments, such as bone marrow transplantation. Child psychiatrists have also experienced a shift toward outpatient training and provision of care, fewer opportunities to work with pediatricians in inpatient hospital settings, and a workforce shortage in child psychiatry.4 With these changes, the PM-trained physician will likely be called upon to conduct pediatric PM consultations in settings where no child psychiatrist is available.
Treating children requires specific skills and knowledge, such as the consideration of developmental issues, familial interactions, pediatric pharmacology, and potential cognitive and communication difficulties. Psychiatric consultation with medically ill children requires further expertise. Clinicians need to recognize appropriate physical, motor, language, cognitive, sexual, and emotional development in children with chronic medical illnesses, as well as the spectrum of normal responses to stresses. Also, impaired and pathologic patterns of development and adaptation to stress should be identified. Such recognition can lead to early interventions for prevention and management of psychopathology as well as for improvements in medical illness outcomes. Critical principles of pediatric PM include the following: an awareness of the cognitive and emotional developmental level of the patient; an appreciation of the essential role of the family in adaptation; and a recognition of the clinical benefits of facilitating coping and adjustment to illness, rather than concentrating on psychopathology, in order to encourage an optimal developmental trajectory.
What follows is a suggested reading list of relevant articles for the PM fellow who is called upon to perform a pediatric PM consultation. The bibliography extends beyond what is readily available in academic curricula in adult PM5 or textbooks such as Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: A Comprehensive Textbook,6 Oski’s Pediatrics,7 The Textbook of Psychosomatic Medicine,8 and Clinical Manual of Pediatric Psychosomatic Medicine.9 We hope that this annotated bibliography may bolster the confidence level of adult psychiatrists in the evaluation of children in situations when child-psychiatry consultation is not readily available. Also, we hope that the reading list will facilitate the orientation of adult psychiatrists in considering childhood illness experiences when evaluating adults with chronic medical conditions.
To compile the bibliography, PsychInfo, Scopus, and MEDLINE were queried for abstracts concerning pediatric C–L psychiatry from 1995–2006. Two of the authors approved the abstracts in order for the full text of the article to be obtained. Three of the authors, including a psychiatry resident and a child psychiatrist, read each article to determine inclusion into the bibliography. For inclusion into the bibliography, articles were required to be English-language, clinically focused, and readily available to psychiatry residents and fellows. The selected review articles address a range of conditions commonly seen in clinical practice. Articles reviewing broad-based concepts in child psychiatry were included to supplement the pediatric PM literature in topics such as psychopharmacology and child-onset psychiatric disorders because these areas have not been reviewed in the context of medically ill children. The compilation is not exhaustive and will not encompass all clinical scenarios that a resident or fellow may encounter, but will be a useful resource for psychiatric residents, fellows, or other professionals in need of a brief introduction to salient topics in the field of pediatric PM. We hope that, through this reference list, more clinical work and research will be initiated in this burgeoning field.
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Annotated Bibliography
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Articles designated * are of special interest in pediatric psychosomatic medicine. Articles designated ** are of exceptional interest in pediatric psychosomatic medicine.
General Child Consultation–Liaison Psychiatry
**Knapp PK, Harris ES: Consultation–liaison in child psychiatry: a review of the past 10 years, part 1: clinical findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998; 37:17–25
A summary of the clinical field of child consultation–liaison psychiatry, with an overview of psychosocial issues associated with different childhood illnesses. Also, discussions of family responses, ethics, indications for psychiatric consultation, and interactions with pediatricians are included.
*Ortiz P: General principles in child liaison consultation service: a literature review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 6:1–6
An overview of child consultation–liaison psychiatry services, including descriptions of various organizational models and possible areas of concern during a child’s hospital experience.
*Shaw RJ, Wamboldt M, Bursch B, et al: Practice patterns in pediatric consultation–liaison psychiatry: a national survey. Psychosomatics 2006; 47:43–49
Survey of staff composition, funding, clinical activities, common problems, and practice patterns from 48 pediatric consultation–liaison services. The article provides a snapshot of the current administrative and clinical activities of pediatric consultation–liaison psychiatry services in the United States and discusses future directions in the field.
Developmental Perspectives
**Koopman HM, Baars RM, Chaplin J, et al: Illness through the eyes of the child: the development of children’s understanding of the causes of illness. Patient Educ Couns 2004; 55:363–370
A developmental model of children’s conceptions of illness created through interviews with 78 healthy children and 80 children with diabetes mellitus. This model, titled "Through the Eyes of the Child," places special importance on the perception of the child in the development of causal thinking.
**Suris JC, Michaud PA, Viner R: The adolescent with a chronic condition, part 1: developmental issues. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89:938–942
A review of both the effects of chronic illness on adolescent development and developmental contributions to the experience of chronic illness from a biological, psychosocial, social, and health-risk perspective. Special emphasis is placed on school, peer, and family relations.
**Michaud PA, Suris JC, Viner R: The adolescent with a chronic condition, part 2: healthcare provision. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89:943–949
A continuation of the previous adolescent review by Suris et al.: a look at the adolescent with a chronic illness as he or she relates to a physician. Issues such as diagnosis delivery, adherence, life-threatening disease, lifestyle choices, and transitions into adult life are addressed. Succinct tables list common themes in communication, adherence, and transitions into adulthood.
*Lock J: Psychosexual development in adolescents with chronic medical illness. Psychosomatics 1998; 39:340–349
An illumination of the sparse research on psychosexual development in chronically ill adolescents. Clinical descriptors and case examples of psychosexual development in early, middle, and late adolescence are discussed, as well as cultural factors and developmentally appropriate interventions.
Olsen DG, Swigonski NL: Transition to adulthood: the important role of the pediatrician. Pediatrics 2004 (on-line); 113:E159–E162
Coauthored by a parent of two children with special needs, this report underscores the need for families and physicians to create long-term "life plans" and goals for children with chronic illnesses or disabilities.
Adversity in Development
**Taylor E, Rogers JW: Practitioner review: early adversity and developmental disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005; 46:451–467
An analysis of the effects of genetic and environmental influences on development. Outcomes of substance abuse and psychological disturbances in mothers’ pregnancy; toxic chemicals, infectious disease, dietary deficiencies, head injury, and neglect in early development are reported as they relate to mental disorders, genetic determination and known mechanisms of illness.
McEwen BS: Early life influences on lifelong patterns of behavior and health. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2003; 9:149–154
An explanation of the neuroscience behind the effects of early life experiences on later development. Provides discussions of relevant animal models and possible interventions.
Bhutta AT, Anand KJ: Vulnerability of the developing brain: neuronal mechanisms. Clin Perinatol 2002; 29:357–372
A description of risk factors in the neurodevelopment of neonates. Exposure to prolonged or repetitive pain, metabolic stresses, and a dearth of social stimulation may lead to brain damage, resulting in decreased brain volume, behavioral and neuroendocrine abnormalities, and poor cognition during childhood and adolescence.
*Szymanski L, King BH: Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with mental retardation and comorbid mental disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1999; 38(suppl 12):S5–S31
Comprehensive guidelines for mental health care of individuals with mental retardation (MR), with discussions of assessment, psychopathology, and treatment. General knowledge of MR, as well as pharmacotherapy, psychosocial issues, medical issues, and communication with individuals with MR are detailed.
Communication
*Billson A, Tyrrell J: How to break bad news. Curr Pediatr 2003; 13:284–287
A guide to communicating bad news to children and their parents that gives a breakdown of the process, including preparation, giving the news, and follow-up.
*Fritz GK: Promoting effective collaboration between pediatricians and child and adolescent psychiatrists. Pediatr Ann 2003; 32:386–389
A useful exploration of the differences in history, roles, and expectations between child psychiatrists and pediatricians with suggestions to improve communication between specialties.
American Academy of Pediatrics: Care coordination in the medical home: integrating health and related systems of care for children with special healthcare needs. Pediatrics 2005; 116:1238–1244
This brief statement illustrates the concept of the "medical home." Coordination between primary-care physicians, the family, and the community, as well as characteristics of successful care models are included.
Familial Considerations
**Mayes LC: Child mental health consultation with families of medically compromised infants. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2003; 12:401–421
A review of concerns surrounding preterm and medically ill infants and the psychological impact on families and clinical staff. Behavioral and neurodevelopmental outcomes of neonates are discussed, as well as practical guidelines for pediatric PM consultations in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).
**Thomasgard M, Metz WP: The vulnerable-child syndrome revisited. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1995; 16:47–53
A review of the research and clinical literature surrounding the vulnerable-child syndrome, characterized by an increased perception by the parent that the child is vulnerable to injury or illness. A conceptual model provides a modern approach to a classic concept with additional clinical measures.
Wallander JL, Varni JW: Effects of pediatric chronic physical disorders on child and family adjustment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998; 39:29–46
A comprehensive, theory-centered review of psychosocial effects of pediatric chronic illness. Although the research is limited to the 1990s, the theoretical model and detailed analysis of child and parent adjustment are particularly lucid.
Gardner E: Siblings of chronically ill children: toward an understanding of process. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998; 3:213–227
A description of stressors and coping strategies in siblings of children with chronic illness. The clinical insights into siblings’ experiences provide a framework for cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) or other types of psychotherapy in this population.
Culture/Religion
Pumariega AJ, Rothe E: Cultural considerations in child and adolescent psychiatric emergencies and crises. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2003; 12:723–744
A multicultural approach to mental health diagnosis and treatment of children and adolescents in the United States. The impact of culture on psychiatric emergency care, along with the effects of refugee status are explored; includes two case studies.
Sexson SB: Religious and spiritual assessment of the child and adolescent. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2004; 13:35–47
A comprehensive overview of religion and spirituality in children and how the understanding and appreciation of religious issues are helpful in the treatment of medically or psychiatrically ill children.
School/Psychological Testing
*Taras H, Potts-Datema W: Chronic health conditions and student performance at school. J Sch Health 2005; 75:255–266
A review of the literature concerning school performance and cognitive abilities of children with chronic illnesses. The article includes several tables outlining specific research investigations of school experiences in children with diabetes, sickle cell anemia, and epilepsy.
Vitulano LA: Psychosocial issues for children and adolescents with chronic illness: self-esteem, school functioning, and sports participation. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2003; 12:585–592
Clinical case examples and a general overview give a clear introduction to the psychosocial issues that confront children with chronic illness; discusses difficulties in school, sports, and self-esteem.
Halperin JM, McKay KE: Psychological testing for child and adolescent psychiatrists. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998; 37:575–584
A helpful discussion for psychiatrists of psychological tests, including descriptions of intelligence tests, academic achievement tests, neuropsychological tests, and personality assessments that may be useful in clinically evaluating a child or adolescent.
Emergency Issues
*Halamandaris PV, Anderson TR: Children and adolescents in the psychiatric emergency setting. Psychiatr Clin N Am 1999; 22:865–874
An overview of common psychiatric emergencies involving children and adolescents. Emergencies such as suicide, aggression, psychosis, physical or sexual abuse, fire-setting, and running away are discussed in terms of evaluation and treatment planning.
*Spirito A, Overholser J: The suicidal child: assessment and management of adolescents after a suicide attempt. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2003; 12:649–665
A review of the prevalence, assessment, and treatment of adolescents who have attempted suicide. The review includes an information sheet for parents, as well as an outline of specific risk and protective factors for attempted suicide in adolescents.
**Turkel SB, Tavaré CJ: Delirium in children and adolescents. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003; 15:431–435
An overview of 84 cases of delirium in children and adolescents ages 6 months to 18 years. Clinical presentation, causes of delirium, treatments, and outcomes are discussed. The authors report that delirium in children has a similar presentation and course as in adults.
*Heyneman EK: The aggressive child. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2003; 12:667–677
An overview of assessment and treatment of the aggressive child. Aggressive behaviors are divided into three "phases," and suggestions for behavioral, physical, and chemical treatments are given for each. Physical restraints, violence, and legal issues are also discussed.
*Sorrentino A: Chemical restraints for the agitated, violent, or psychotic pediatric patient in the emergency department: controversies and recommendations. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004; 16:201–205
An analysis of the use of benzodiazepines, neuroleptics, and atypical antipsychotics in aggressive pediatric patients. Common dosages and side effects, including a discussion of droperidol and combination therapy, are included.
*Semper TF, McClellan JM: The psychotic child. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2003; 12:679–691
A clinician’s guide to recognizing and treating psychosis in children and adolescents. Psychosis as a result of mental illness, developmental disabilities, or intoxication, is explored, and two case studies are reported.
*Geller B, Zimerman B, Williams M, et al: Phenomenology of prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder: examples of elated mood, grandiose behaviors, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, and hypersexuality. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2002; 12:3–9
A comparison of normal child behavior versus manic thoughts and behavior in children and adults through clinical interviews with 268 patients with bipolar disorder. The article does not contain treatment suggestions, but includes references to other articles that describe pharmacological management of bipolar children.
Medical Considerations
**Guerrero AP: General medical considerations in child and adolescent patients who present with psychiatric symptoms. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2003; 12:613–628
A series of case studies illustrating medical illnesses that present as psychiatric symptoms in the emergency room; includes a useful chart of general medical considerations in children with psychiatric diagnoses.
Stuart FA, Segal TY, Keady S: Adverse psychological effects of corticosteroids in children and adolescents. Arch Dis Child 2005; 90:500–506
An overview of case reports, clinical trials, and case series demonstrating psychological effects of corticosteroids in children and adolescents; includes discussions of risks, withdrawal symptoms, and clinical treatment.
Schneider RK, Robinson MJ, Levenson JL: Psychiatric presentations of non-HIV infectious diseases. Psychiatr Clin N Am 2002; 25:1–16
A review of the etiology, disease course, and treatment of neurocysticercosis, Lyme disease, and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS). Although the article does not specifically address the pediatric population, Lyme disease and PANDAS are commonly seen in children.
Donenberg GR, Pao M: Youths and HIV/AIDS: psychiatry’s role in a changing epidemic. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2005; 44:728–747
A review of the literature on HIV/AIDS in youth, with discussions of risk, prevention, disclosure, neurocognitive sequelae, psychiatric diagnoses, and treatment. A social-personal model of adolescent HIV risk is also described.
Depression/Anxiety/Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
**Shemesh E, Bartell A, Newcorn JH: Assessment and treatment of depression in medically ill children. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2002; 4:88–92
A look into the diagnosis and treatment of depressed medically ill children, with discussions of psychotherapy, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and stimulants.
Dejong M, Fombonne E: Depression in pediatric cancer: an overview. Psychooncology 2006; 15: 553–566
A review of the prevalence estimates of depression in children with cancer, identifying the gaps and limitations of current research; also discusses diagnostic issues and methodological problems.
Lyneham HJ, Rapee RM: Evaluation and treatment of anxiety disorders in the general pediatric population: a clinician’s guide. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2005; 14:845–861
An overview of diagnosis and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) treatment of children and adolescents with anxiety. Assessment tools and a review of the CBT literature in this population are included.
**Stuber ML, Shemesh E, Saxe GN: Posttraumatic stress responses in children with life-threatening illnesses. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2003; 12:195–209
A review of possible risk factors and consequences of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in medically ill children. The introduction and clinical approaches illustrate the important role of the pediatric consultation–liaison psychiatrist in relation to the family as well as the hospital staff.
**Stuber ML, Schneider S, Kassam-Adams N, et al: The medical traumatic stress tool-kit. CNS Spectrums 2006; 11:137–142
A tool-kit of materials concerning the detection, prevention, and treatment of acute stress disorder in medical settings. The materials can be downloaded free-of-charge from www.nctsn.org and are appropriate for both family and staff.
Peebles-Kleiger MJ: Pediatric and neonatal intensive-care hospitalization as traumatic stressor: implications for intervention. Bull Menninger Clin 2000; 64:257–280
A look into the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) and the NICU as a traumatic stressor for both families and hospital staff; also discusses identification of symptoms related to the trauma, as well as possible interventions and methods to increase resiliency.
Somatization
**Fritz GK, Fritsch S, Hagino O: Somatoform disorders in children and adolescents: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36:1329–1338
A thorough review of somatoform disorders and their epidemiology, developmental considerations, and treatment. Disorders such as somatization disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, hypochondriasis, conversion disorder, vocal cord dysfunction, pain syndromes, recurrent abdominal pain, and reflex sympathetic dystrophy are discussed.
Scharff L: Recurrent abdominal pain in children: a review of psychological factors and treatment. Clin Psychol Rev 1997; 17:145–166
An introduction to the literature on recurrent abdominal pain in children, with prevalence rates; physical causes, such as diet; and psychological correlates, such as anxiety, depression, somatization, and stress. The article provides an overview of recurrent abdominal pain and treatment options but does not discuss recent pharmacologic trends.
Stores G: Practitioner review: recognition of pseudoseizures in children and adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1999; 40:851–857
A description of traditional and modern diagnostic criteria for pseudoseizures in children and adolescents, with an evaluation of EEG evidence.
Libow JA: Child and adolescent illness-falsification. Pediatrics 2000; 105:336–342
A literature review of 42 cases of child and adolescent illness-falsification from 1970 to 2000. The methods and characteristics of individuals who falsify illness and the obstacles posed to clinician recognition are discussed.
Galvin HK, Newton AW, Vandeven AM: Update on Munchausen syndrome by proxy. Curr Opin Pediatr 2005; 17:252–257
A clinical overview of the phenomenology, epidemiology, and management of Munchausen by proxy. The review includes several case examples and a recommended reading list for more information.
Eating Disorders
Rome ES, Ammerman S, Rosen DS, et al: Children and adolescents with eating disorders: the state of the art. Pediatrics 2003 (on-line); 111:E98–E108
A detailed update on the etiology, screening, and management of eating disorders. Predictors of outcomes, insurance considerations, and suggested guidelines for treatment are included.
Chatoor I: Feeding disorders in infants and toddlers: diagnosis and treatment. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2002; 11:163–183
A thorough overview of diagnostic criteria and treatment of feeding disorders in young children, including feeding disorder of state-regulation, feeding disorder of reciprocity, infantile anorexia, sensory food aversion, feeding disorder associated with a concurrent medical condition, and posttraumatic feeding disorder.
Substance Abuse
Greydanus DE, Patel DR: Substance abuse in adolescents: a complex conundrum for the clinician. Pediatr Clin North Am 2003; 50:1179–1223
A comprehensive look at the prevalence, effects, and treatments of substance abuse in adolescents; includes discussions of etiology and risk factors, and evaluation suggestions for the abuse of alcohol, inhalants, tobacco, marijuana, and athletic performance-enhancers.
Movement Disorders/Catatonia
Rodnitzky RL: Drug-induced movement disorders in children and adolescents. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2005; 4:91–102
An overview of the etiology, risk factors, and treatment options for drug-induced movement disorders in children, including acute dystonic reactions, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, serotonin syndrome, and akathisia.
Takaoka K, Takata T: Catatonia in childhood and adolescence. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003; 57:129–137
A literature review of catatonia in youth that examines the etiology of the syndrome, including psychopathology, substance-induced symptoms, general medical conditions, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome.
Sleep Disorders
Capp PK, Pearl PL, Lewin D: Pediatric sleep disorders. Prim Care Clin Office Pract 2005; 32:549–562
This review provides an overview of pediatric sleep physiology and addresses pediatric sleep disorders, including sudden infant death syndrome, central hypoventilation syndrome, insomnias, parasomnias, nocturnal enuresis, sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and sleep abnormalities caused by psychiatric conditions.
Stores G: Medication for sleep–wake disorders. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88:899–903
A discussion of medications, including melatonin, used to treat sleep disorders such as insomnias, daytime sleepiness, and parasomnias.
Physical Injuries/Burns
**Stoddard FJ, Saxe G: Ten-year research review of physical injuries. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001; 40:1128–1145
A comprehensive overview of the psychological and psychiatric concerns in children with physical injuries. Discussions of assessment and management of PTSD in both the acute and non-acute treatment phases, as well as considerations in special populations.
Dise-Lewis JE: A developmental perspective on psychological principles of burn care. J Burn Care Rehabil 2001; 22:255–260
A developmental look at the effects of and interventions for children and adolescents with burns, including nonpharmacologic suggestions for pain and stress management.
Procedural Anxiety/Pain
*Duff AJA: Incorporating psychological approaches into routine paediatric venipuncture. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88:931–937
An overview of the treatment and prevention of procedural distress in children. The review includes a helpful table of a developmental approach to pain measures and distraction techniques, as well as a proposed algorithm for desensitization.
**Greco C, Berde C: Pain management for the hospitalized pediatric patient. Pediatr Clin N Am 2005; 52:995–1027
An extensive primer into pediatric pain management that includes discussions of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic approaches to treatment, and medication adverse effects; includes descriptions of specific conditions in infants and children, such as procedural pain, cancer pain, benign pain, and pain of unknown origin.
Caldas JC, Pais-Ribeiro JL, Carneiro SR: General anesthesia, surgery, and hospitalization in children and their effects upon cognitive, academic, emotional, and sociobehavioral development: a review. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14:910–915
A concise overview of the predictors, negative behavioral effects, and developmental outcomes associated with preoperative anxiety and distress; outlines intervention programs as well as future investigations.
Tsao JCI, Zeltzer LK: Complementary and alternative medicine approaches for pediatric pain: a review of the state-of-the-art-science. Evid-Based Complement Alternat Med 2005; 2:149–159
A review of the research on complementary and alternative-medicine interventions for children with pain, including discussions of acupuncture, biofeedback, art therapy, herbal medicine, homeopathy, and hypnosis. The review contains a summary designation of empirical evidence for each intervention according to American Psychological Association criteria.
Adherence
*Winnick S, Lucas DO, Hartman AL, et al: How do you improve compliance? Pediatrics 2005; 115:E718–E724
A review of the literature on factors affecting adherence, including the physician–patient relationship; patient, pediatrician, and family characteristics; and medication duration, palatability, and adverse effects. Authors set forth six general principles for improving medication adherence.
Sawyer SM, Aroni RA: Sticky issue of adherence. J Paediatr Child Health 2003; 39:2–5
An overview of the conceptualization of adherence with an emphasis on the role of the health professional. Asthma is used as a case example in adherence-promoting strategies.
Lemanek KL, Kamps J, Chung NB: Empirically supported treatments in pediatric psychology: regimen adherence. J Pediatr Psychol 2001; 26:253–275
A look at the empirically-based data on pediatric psychology interventions in adherence. The extensive review of the literature investigates interventions in asthma, juvenile arthritis, and diabetes.
Death and Dying
*Charlton R: Medical education: addressing the needs of the dying child. Palliat Med 1996; 10:240–246
A review of concerns for practitioners surrounding the care of a dying child. Perceptions of death, informed consent, palliative care, and location of care are discussed.
Hurwitz CA, Duncan J, Wolfe J: Caring for the child with cancer at the close of life: "There are people who make it, and I’m hoping I’m one of them." JAMA 2004; 292:2141–2149
An overview of clinical care of children with a terminal illness; developmental perspectives on death, and approaches to the care of family and staff.
Kreicbergs U, Valdimarsdottir U, Onelov E, et al: Talking about death with children who have severe malignant disease. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:1175–1186
A survey of 429 Swedish parents who had lost a child to cancer. None of the parents regretting speaking to their children about death, whereas 27% of parents who did not discuss death with their child had regrets.
Forensic Psychiatry/Sexual Abuse
Ash P, Derdeyn A: Forensic child and adolescent psychiatry: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36:1493–1502
An introduction to forensic psychiatry, with overviews of family law, abuse laws, child protection, physicians’ liabilities, the juvenile court system, and educational placement issues.
Johnson CF: Child sexual abuse. Lancet 2004; 364:462–470
An introduction to the incidence, prevention, and consequences of childhood sexual abuse. Illustrations are included to recognize the physical signs of abuse, and a useful chart depicts the behavioral consequences.
Foster Care/Adoption
Rosenfeld AA, Pilowsky DJ, Fine P, et al: Foster care: an update. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997; 36:448–457
A guide for child psychiatrists that provides an overview of children living in foster care. Psychiatric, pediatric, social work, and psychological perspectives are presented. Discussions of physical and mental health needs, environmental concerns, and new developments in foster care will be helpful to the clinician.
Weitzman C, Albers L: Long-term developmental, behavioral, and attachment outcomes after international adoption. Pediatr Clin N Am 2005; 52:1395–1419
An extensive discussion of the effects of international adoption. The issues raised about development, behavior, and attachment are important in both international and domestic adoption.
Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Youth
Garofalo R, Katz E: Healthcare issues of gay and lesbian youth. Curr Opin Pediatr 2001; 13:298–302
An introduction to health issues affecting gay and lesbian adolescents; includes discussions of homophobia, suicide, adolescent risk-behaviors, community resources, and suggested interview questions. The authors also emphasize the strengths that help most gay youth become well-adjusted young adults.
Psychological Treatments
**McQuaid EL, Nassau JH: Empirically supported treatments of disease-related symptoms in pediatric psychology: asthma, diabetes, and cancer. J Pediatr Psychol 1999; 24:305–328
A report on psychological treatments for children and adolescents with asthma, diabetes, and cancer. The appendices include descriptive summaries of the empirical evidence for relaxation therapy, biofeedback, family therapy, and psychoanalysis.
Christie D, Wilson C: CBT in pediatric and adolescent health settings: a review of practice-based evidence. Pediatr Rehabil 2005; 8:241–247
An overview of the research supporting CBT in children with chronic illnesses, such as diabetes, sickle cell disease, chronic pain, and chronic fatigue. A reference list provides resources to learn more about CBT techniques.
Roberts MC, Lazicki-Puddy TA, Puddy RW, et al: The outcomes of psychotherapy with adolescents: a practitioner-friendly review. J Clin Psychol 2003; 59:1177–1191
A review of the evidence-based research on psychotherapy with adolescents, focusing on anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, disruptive behavior, and health-risk behaviors.
McClellan JM, Werry JS: Evidence-based treatments in child and adolescent psychiatry: an inventory. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003; 42:1388–1400
A literature review of the evidence-based research in psychopharmacology and psychotherapy with children and adolescents. A useful chart of psychotropic medications and their indications is included in addition to recommendations for an evidence-based practice.
Psychopharmacology
**Stoddard FJ, Usher CT, Abrams AN: Psychopharmacology in pediatric critical care. Child Adolesc Clin N Am 2006; 15:611–655
An overview of the principles in pharmacokinetics; potential interactions and dosing in psychopharmacology in critically ill children. Psychopharmacology in children with psychopathology and delirium and those receiving palliative care is also addressed.
Pappadopulos EA, Tate-Guelzow B, Wong C, et al: A review of the growing evidence base for pediatric psychopharmacology. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am 2004; 13:817–855
A broad review of the research in child and adolescent psychopharmacology, organized by psychiatric disorder. Disorders include attention deficit disorder, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, autism, Tourette’s disorder, and conduct disorder.
Bonati M, Clavenna A: The epidemiology of psychotropic drug use in children and adolescents. Int Rev Psychiatry 2005; 17:181–188
An international perspective on psychotropic drug use in the United States, Canada, and Europe. Research has shown an increase in prescriptions of SSRIs and stimulants. The authors highlight the current controversies over psychotropic medication use in children.
Pathak S, Arszman SP, Danielyan A, et al: Psychotropic utilization and psychiatric presentation of hospitalized very young children. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 2004; 14:433–442
A retrospective chart review of children age 7 and younger admitted to a psychiatric unit: over 75% of children received psychotropic medications, with antipsychotics as the most common, followed by psychostimulants and antidepressants. Comorbidity, multiple medication use, and the effects of severity of illness are also discussed.
Consent
*Tan JOA, Jones DPH: Children’s consent. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2001; 14:303–307
A brief overview of key concepts and terms in children’s competence to consent. The sparse research on the topic is reviewed.
Campbell AT: Consent, competence, and confidentiality related to psychiatric conditions in adolescent medical practice. Adolesc Med 2006; 17:25–47
A thorough resource for ethical and legal concerns in treating the adolescent patient, including a glossary of important terms related to adolescent medical care, a table of each state’s parameters for minor consent in mental health disorders, case examples, and guidelines for assessing decision-making capacity in mental health conditions.
Wendler DS: Assent in pediatric research: theoretical and practical considerations. J Med Ethics 2006; 32:229–234
A comprehensive overview of assent and non-assent of children and adolescents in research. Age requirements and a suggested two-step decision procedure for assent in children are discussed.
Research
Petersen AC, Leffert N: Developmental issues influencing guidelines for adolescent health research: a review. J Adolesc Health 1995; 17:298–305
A review of pubertal, cognitive, moral, psychologic, psychosocial, and social development in adolescents and the relationship of these processes to research involvement.
Arnold EL, Stoff DM, Cook E, et al: Ethical issues in biological psychiatric research with children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995; 34:929–939
A comprehensive overview of the ethical concerns specific to research with children and adolescents. Concerns such as determining risk, research preparation, normal controls, inducement, consent, sharing of information, socioeconomic status, and cultural/ethnic status are discussed.
Wendler D, Belsky L, Thompson KM, et al: Quantifying the federal minimal-risk standard: implications for pediatric research without a prospect of direct benefit. JAMA 2005; 294:826–832
A discussion of ethical issues involved in research with children, with a special emphasis on the concept of "minimal risk."
Research in Pediatric Psychosomatic Medicine
**Knapp PK, Harris ES: Consultation–liaison in child psychiatry: a review of the past 10 years, part 2: research on treatment approaches and outcomes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998; 37:139–146
An introduction to important features of child consultation–liaison psychiatry research, such as design, participant selection, instruments, and treatment outcomes. The authors also detail recent trends moving away from "deficit-centered" consultation to a more positive, developmental model that focuses on the child in the context of the family and community.
*Barlow JH, Ellard DR: The psychosocial well-being of children with chronic disease, their parents, and siblings: an overview of the research evidence base. Child Care Health Dev 2006; 32:19–31
An overview of the literature from 1990 to 2004 on psychosocial issues in children with chronic illness, their parents, and siblings. Each metaanalysis or literature review is outlined in terms of design, research measures, and key results.
*Gjaerum B, Heyerdahl S: Assessment of mental state in medically ill children and adolescents. Curr Opin Psychiatry 1998; 11:635–641
Assessment methods are critically examined for children with chronic illness. The article includes analysis and descriptions of behavioral screening, developmental screening, psychiatric assessment, cognitive screening, social competence assessment, and quality-of-life assessment.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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This research was supported by The National Institute of Mental Health. The views expressed in this article do not necessarily represent the views of the NIMH, NIH, HHS, or the U.S. government.
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REFERENCES
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
